The Future of UAS

     The future of UAS is a very broad topic with many opinions that no one will know for sure until it happens, but is it already?   We are still in the early stages of what’s to come in terms of future UAS applications and technologies similar to the early stages of the Jet age.  Making the transition from piston-powered engines to turbine engines was a huge leap comparable to replacing some current day manned operations with unmanned platforms.  In order to progress into the future we must begin by setting precedents now.  An unprecedented example of an unmanned platform application can be found in the October 2016 article “Airborne Surveyor” in Aviation Week and will be summarized below.

     Airborne surveying is nothing new.  Aerial information of a location or region is requested and the standard means is through manned flight.  Manned flight for surveying is costly and somewhat time consuming based on the equipment, aircraft, and software used.  A recent issue came about when the FAA reviewed obstacle clearance data for airports countrywide and determined that tree growth had penetrated the maximum 20:1 approach slope stretching out from the ends of many runways.  Due to the tree growth, some of these airports had to prohibit night operations based on location.  The current method for inspecting such approach slopes involves a state safety inspector using a clinometer and their unobstructed vision.  Obviously, this has many shortcomings in collecting such data and this has been where aerial mapping surveys have filled the gap.  The next problem becomes funding.  The mapping surveying can cost $8,000 - $10,000 per runway, involves a very difficult authorization process, and even after the survey is complete it can take weeks to compile the data into a usable form.

     The solution seemed simple enough but had never attempted before due to numerous regulations and safety issues.  The South Carolina Aeronautics Commissions simply proposed an unmanned aerial system.  The commission chose the SenseFly EBee RTK.  A flying wing with a pusher prop, 37 in. wingspan, 1.6 lb., snap together, hand launched UAV.  A high definition camera payload attached to the UAV that would allow for mapping and producing orthomosaics and 3D models with incredible accuracy.  The total cost of the UAS along with GIS software was $50,000 but the business case showed that the system would pay itself off in surveying just 5-6 airports.  The part that came next was submitting a request to the FAA to carry out the runway mapping with a UAS.  Initially the FAA nearly stopped breathing when they saw the request.  Never before had a drone been flown in the approach areas of public use airports.  However, the FAA and SC commission worked it out specifying clear operating rules.  A notice to airman was issued 48 hours in advance, line of sight control during daylight hours, pilot and observer, and maximum altitude of 700 feet.  Currently six airports have been completed with each survey only taking 30 minutes and producing over 200 overlapping photos all done in 3-4 flights.  The actual data can be processed overnight versus weeks with an accuracy of 4-6 inches.  The process turned out to be such a great success that eight other states have sent commissioners to South Carolina to learn more.  Last month the SC Aeronautics team attended the NASAO’s annual convention and received the “Most Innovative “award for 2016.

     I feel that examples like this exhibit the future of UAS here and now.  Certainly, technologies such as airframes, sensors, and control systems will advance and applications for new ways to use unmanned platforms will become more creative and robust.  However, none of that means anything if we don’t equally push the boundaries regarding rules and regulations holding back the full potential power of UAS now.  Showing what was thought to be impossible, possible, further solidifies the future of UAS.  

References

Garvey, W. (2016, October).  Airborne Surveyor: A tiny, winged tool to help keep airplanes out of trees, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Volume 178(Issue 20).  Pp. 14

Drone Videos, Photos, and Mapping

The link below is my most recent compilation of video taken while in Oregon, Washington, and Charleston, South Carolina.  The footage in Oregon was taken on Cannon Beach and near Mount Hood.  A few shots were near the Columbia River Gorge in Washington State while the remaining footage was taken in Charleston by Folly Beach and Isle of Palms.

Aerial Video in Oregon, Washington, and Charleston

The link below is various footage around the Charleston coastal area such as Sullivan's Island, Isle of Palms, and Mount Pleasant.  The footage includes aerial video of a beach house in wild dunes on the tip of IOP as well.

Charleston Aerial Video

The link below contains various aerial video from Southern California in the Huntington Beach (Surfers) area as well as Temecula.  Also some random footage around downtown Charleston and Mount Pleasant.

SoCal and CHS Aerial Video

The last video link below is a compilation of test flights flown locally as well as a few from Carolina Adventure world and Kayaking near Cat Island.

Test Flight Compilation


Below are some random Aerial Photos

Koji from above

DK and JG at the track

Columbia River Gorge

Cannon Beach

Roof Inspection

The links below are some images from a aerial mapping exercise.

Flight path displayed on Ipad

Software Processing

Field Model

Field Model Zoom

Article Review: UAS Use

     Monday August 29^th marked the first day that the FAA Part 107 Remote Pilot certification test was available.  The first day alone the FAA reported over 1,500 individuals taking the certification test.  The unmanned aircraft industry will continue to explode as UAV ground schools open and expand as more interest is steered towards commercial UAV applications.  There are numerous applications that are currently carried out by manned aircraft that will certainly be replaced quickly over time with unmanned technologies.

     An application that has gained more attention lately is power/transmission line inspections.   This task is inherently dangerous and historically executed using lineman, helicopters, trucks, and ground crews.  The advantages of using an unmanned aerial system over conventional methods are huge.  Safety is a major factor due to the dangerous nature of having a human either climbing or being flown over a location to inspect and take pictures to determine necessary repairs.  Cost of operation is another major advantage of the unmanned system.  The UAV is also able to arrive on location much more quickly then calling out a crew, truck, or scheduling time for a helicopter.  UAV’s allow for a less intrusive method of inspection along with increased detail.  Transformers and powerlines can be inspected by UAS in a safe, cost effective, and timely manner to help in avoiding potential problems.

     There are currently many companies with unique products for achieving the same goal.  The Swiss company SKIVE Aviation AG invented the first UAV that lands on powerlines.  Development of the system took two years in which many challenges had to be overcome.   The UAV flies to the location, lands on the powerlines, and then will drive along the wires for inspection.  The landing of the UAV on the powerlines is automated due to this portion of the flight being critical to avoid the propellers making contact with wires.  The images and data collected can be analyzed as needed.  The UAS also uses LIDAR to map the surrounding environment and determine if trees or brush are too close to wires being inspected.  The robot allows for covering a much greater distance than “on foot” inspections.

Powerline UAV Video

     The other company, Aeroscout, uses a small industrial unmanned helicopter that can be customized for the inspection of power transmission lines.  The Aeroscout  combines INS and GPS for precise navigation along with “heavy lift” payload capability allowing for multiple sensors packages.  Options include LIDAR, Infrared, hyperspectral cameras, aerial imagery, and photogrammetry.  The Aeroscout allows for a very robust versatile UAS for powerline inspection as well as other infrastructure.

Aeroscout UAV Video

     Enwin Utilities in Windsor, Ontario recently received operations certificates to fly drones for powerline inspection use however; they took a much more economical approach.  The use of DJI Phantom UAS's are being used for inspection.  The smaller quadcopters have shown to be ideal for Canada's transport guidelines and under the conditions of Enwin’s SFOC.  The company can now begin flying the small UAV’s for routine maintenance checks to help maintain safety and reliability of local distribution systems.

     Infrastructure inspections such as transmission lines are just one of the many applications replacing manned aircraft that offer increased benefits.

References

Aeroscout.  (2016).  Aeroscout – Unmanned Aircraft Technology.  Retrieved from http://www.aeroscout.ch/index.php/en/

CTV Windsor.  (2016).  Enwin to use drones to inspect power lines.  Retrieved from http://windsor.ctvnews.ca/enwin-to-use-drones-to-inspect-power-lines-1.3061891

GSN Magazine.  (2016).  More than 1,000 register for class to prep for FAA drone pilot certification in August.  Retrieved from 

http://gsnmagazine.com/article/47071/more_1000_register_class_prep_faa_drone_pilot_cert

UAS Vision.  (2015).  Aerial Robot Lands on Powerlines.  Retrieved from http://www.uasvision.com/2015/09/09/aerial-robot-lands-on-powerlines/

Applied Composites Research

The link below is a presentation outlining the Honda Jet and other aerospace composite design, fabrication and manufacturing applications. 

Honda Jet - Materials, Processes and other Industry Composite Fabrication Methods

UAS - Levels of Autonomy

     UAS integration into the National Airpsace system continues to be a long and daunting road with plenty of twists and turns.  A variety of technologies continue to be researched and developed but with no overall standard due to a multitude of technological alternatives as well as barriers.  The changing landscape saw some light at the end of the tunnel with the recent release of Part 107, which applies to small unmanned aircraft for commercial operation.  The sUAS market has begun to grow and is predicted to generate more than $82 billion for the US economy and create more than 100,000 jobs over the next 10 years.   Due to the lower cost of such platforms, ease of access, vast number of applications, and the new FAA regulations, the commercial sUAS industry  could potentially grow more rapidly than any other area.  However the integration of such platforms in the NAS still leaves a few gaps to be filled such as the challenges of autonomy.

     Levels of Autonomy and factors affecting it can vary based on the UAS platform and environment.  Even most UAS used in the military aren’t fully autonomous.  Defining the threshold at which operator intervention and system automation takes hold is still a challenge.  An effective human-automation interaction level must be defined along with trust and mode awareness.  UAS automation roles and responsibilities are still being defined.  An example of the differences in definitions can be shown below in figure 1.  Three different sources and their associated definitions for levels of autonomy shown below gives some insight into the issue. 

                                  Figure 1 - Levels of Autonomy 

     NextGen is a big proponent for utilizing autonomous methods for safely controlling UAS in the NAS.  However, at what level will automation help with self separation, sense and avoid, lost link, and other pilot/aircraft interaction automated assistance.  Research continues to be ongoing for testing automated systems such as NASA’s Ikhana Predator B to determine the level of autonomy that can help in avoiding other air traffic in the NAS.

     Ironically, per Part 107 and the use of small UAS which is considered less than 55 lbs. autonomy isn’t part of the picture.  Flying must be conducted within line of sight, during daylight hours, at a maximum altitude of 400 feet, operations in B, C, D and E airspace is allowed with ATC permission, but under normal circumstances must be 5 miles from the nearest airport.   In addition, FAA airworthiness certification is not required.  Even though autonomy does not play a direct role in this type of commercial integration, the types of UAS platforms under 55 lbs offer some of the latest technology including high levels of automation based on flight controller types.  Many current off the shelf UAS can take-off, land, and fly pre-programmed flights similar to how the military would carry out a UAS type mission, just at a higher altitude and longer range.  Some UAS even offer autonomy options with the ability to follow an object or person, as well as avoid obstacles based on size, distance, and lighting. 

     As the commercial sUAS industry begins to grow more rapidly types of automation used on such platforms will increase as they already have to help the pilot in command.  Automation technologies used on sUAS have the ability to grow more rapidly due to the vast number of applications they can be used on and consumer level pricing.  Along with R&D from NASA and the DOD, actual sUAS platforms being used per part 107 will also help shape and define the future levels of autonomy integrated within the NAS.  However, regulations governing such automation to insure safe flight may have a hard time keeping up with the fast paced technologies.  

  

  

References

Anderson, J.  (2010).  Challenges in Autonomy.  Retrieved from https://www.k-state.edu/ckus/conference/abstract_titles/AndersonChallenges.pdf

FAA.  (2016). FAA News.  Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/UAS/media/Part_107_Summary.pdf

NASA.  (2013).  NASA – UAS Integration in the NAS.  Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/Jason_000/Downloads/NASA_SBIR_amp_STTR_Program_Homepage_-_UAS_Integration_in_the_NAS_-_2013-10-31.pdf

UAS Strengths and Weaknesses - Military Vs. Civil

Civil use of Unmanned Aerial Systems has been met with angst from many groups due to association of the technology with the department of defense and other government operations. Ironically, some of the most used civilian technologies today have come from the defense side such as GPS, Radar, Microwaves, Nylon, canned foods, advances in air travel, duct tape, computers, and now “drones”. Below shows a diagram of UAV mission types related to civil applications. To limit UAS platforms to military only operations would be narrow sited considering the advantages they offer to the industries and applications shown below.

 

                                                Figure 1 - Civil Applications

 

Military UAS missions almost always take advantage of some form of remote sensing. Examples of active and passive sensor types include LIDAR, photoscanning, thermal imagery, active microwave, stereovision, hyperspectral, and ultrasonic to name just a few. The greatest advantage in the advancement of sensor types for military use is the ability to detect energy and radiation outside visible light of the electromagnetic spectrum. Energy can be reflected, absorbed, or emitted. An example of this would be the Aces Hy Hyperspectral Sensor on the Predator drone used in Afghanistan. The sensor allows detection of electromagnetic radiation other than what's discernible by the human eye such as hidden roadside bombs or opium crops. The sensor basically detects the composition of an object based on its spectral fingerprint.

                                               Figure 2 - Hyperspectral Imaging

 
Another military remote sensing application would be the HALOE which is a LIDAR sensor used on the Firescout (unmanned helicopter). LIDAR allows for scanning of space to create a 3D map of ground terrain through the use of “time of flight”. HALOE or High Altitude Lidar Operations Experiment has already been flown in Afghanistan as well. This has allowed for more than a third of Afghanistan to be mapped with the ability to also detect “pirates” at sea when using the Firescout. The disadvantages of such sensors can be the cost, maintenance, and operating environment in which they can be used. The sensor packages must be ruggedized when entering certain harsh environments. Also some sensors require specific weather conditions to return optimal image data. Cost can be reduced as sensor technologies improve and quantities increase.

 

 

                                                            Figure 3 - LIDAR Image


The remote sensing applications above carry over directly to civil uses and one unique example of this is civil engineering. Civil Engineering deals with land surveying, structural health monitoring, and ground/structure mapping during the design and construction phase of a project. Photoscanning/LIDAR through the use of UAS allows for a company or firm to shows the condition of an existing project through 3D rendering versus standard aerial photos which are not as accurate, especially when trying to utilize photogrammetry techniques. Once a 3D model has been generated a 3D fly-through of the environment is possible giving the greatest perspective possible. In addition to capturing the actual structure the surrounding terrain would also be captured to help in planning for a project.


The cross over of remote sensing from military to civil applications should be no surprise and even though the cost of some sensors can be high, overall for civil applications this is a huge cost reduction compared to manned aircraft. However, sensor cost is slowly declining as well. In addition, manned aircraft are not capable of certain tasks that UAS platforms are, while doing it at a fraction of the cost. Mapping technologies will continue to grow for civil applications due to the growing demand in various industries and the cost savings over mapping with manned aircraft. Lessons learned from the military once again will play a major role in UAS remote sensing technology but as civil applications increase, they will also play a major role in the technologies direction and usage.



References

Campbell, J. B., & Wynne, R. H. (2011). Introduction to remote sensing, fifth edition (5th;5; ed.). US: Guilford Publications Inc. M.U.A.

Irilluminators. (2014). Hyperspectral Imaging with Infrared Light. Retrieved from https://irilluminators.wordpress.com/2014/01/24/hyperspectral-imaging-with-infrared-light/

Johnson, C. (2013). Civil Use of UAS, A Little More Light , Please. Retrieved from http://www.insidegnss.com/node/3491

NASA. (2004). Civil UAV Capability Assessment. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf

Perlman, A. (2015). Applications for UAV’s in Civil Engineering. Retrieved from http://uavcoach.com/applications-for-uavs-in-civil-engineering/

Wweinberger, S. (2012). 4 Done Sensors That Changed Warfare – and What Happens when they Come Home. Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/g1741/4-new-drone-sensors-that-changed-warfare-and-what-could-happen-when-they-come-home-9549377/?slide=1

Open Hole Compressive Strength of Polymer Matrix Composite Laminates

The link below outlines the steps I have summarized per ASTM for open hole compressive strength testing of polymer based composite laminates.


Open Hole Compressive Strength Testing

Human Factors, Ethics, and Morality of DoD UAS

UAS Morality Issues

     The argument against the use of drones by the military has been very one sided based on social media and news reports.  Statistics being reported have been debated continuously regarding UAS payload accuracy and civilian deaths.  However, the percentages being broadcasted are rarely put into context.  Avery Plaw, a political scientist at the University of Massachusetts researched the deaths of combatants versus civilians in other environments such as ground warfare.  One study showed that drone deaths in Pakistan were estimate at 4, 6, 17, and 20 percent (Shane, S. 2012).    Comparing this study to other warfare settings, the drone civilian deaths were very low.  Ground warfare conducted by the Pakistani Army ended up with a 46 percent death rate of civilians (Shane, S. 2012).  Mr. Plaw also stated that conflicts over the last two decades estimated civilian deaths to be from 33 to 80 percent (Shane, S. 2012).  Limiting the use of drone attacks is allowing our enemies freedom of action.  The ability to fly to a location and monitor a target before striking without ever sending a solder or pilot is an advantage armies of the past could only dream of.   

 UAS Human Factors and Ethics

     The difficulty of war from a distance is the disconnect between man to man combat and being under fire.  The idea that someone is engaging in war or an attack without actually being present can be an ethical dilemma for some.  Some UAS pilots have struggled with post traumatic stress disorder while other disagree that’s possible due to not being present during the strike.  Regardless, the idea of taking another humans life during war is a difficult responsibility especially when there is a potential for innocent lives to be taken.  The human factors elements that can help with mitigation of innocent lives lost can be found in technology improvements.  Increased situation awareness through improved camera optics and increased field of view.  Improved design of ground control stations making the human-machine interface more ergonomic and easy to use.  Decreasing lost link events, data-link latency, and eliminating misinterpreting flight telemetry data.

UAS Morality Opinions in the News

Below are some key phrases that I feel speak volumes from the New York Post and my thoughts behind them (Peters, R. 2015).   

“All weapons are inherently immoral”

War is something no one wants but we live in a world where war is a constant reality.  The US is somewhat sheltered compared to some other countries so it becomes easier for the public to criticize from afar.  Regardless, in order to protect and defend weapons are required.  Weapons and defending an individuals own home is an idea and concept that has been ongoing since the beginning of time.  Whether the weapon is a gun used by a solider, an armed manned aircraft, or unmanned aircraft, they are means required in order for sufficient protection.  The idea of a drone was not to design a more humane weapon, but a more precise weapon.

 “Delay is defeat”

    Action must be taken now to improve the UAS technologies to reduce the likelihood of missed targets and malfunctions leading to a civilian’s loss of life.  The debates and restrictions only slow our ability as a country to eradicate potential threats to our country as terrorist activities reach an all-new level of danger.

“Thousands of lives saved and what makes the headlines?  Two western hostages killed in an otherwise successful drone attack.”

The media does a good job of spinning stories in their favor.  You rarely see statistics of hostages or civilians that are killed during ground attacks and when you do it is not the headline story.  Also, there are rarely debates over whether soldiers weapons are immoral or ethically unsound.  A soldiers tools to protect himself and his fellow soliders have not changed much

 “Even with superb intelligence, weaponry still goes awry”

The technology used with military UAS platforms has become very advanced and precise.  However, technology is not perfect and neither are the people operating it.  This is where the human factors element comes into play.  The design, layout, and training involved with ground control stations, displays, menu options, flight telemetry data, and optical sensor capabilities are fundamental in reducing such human-machine interface issues.  

 “They want to kill us, and their madness has no reverse gear”

     As unfortunate as it may be, we must realize a countries enemies have no reservations and will do what it takes to carry out their plans regardless of intent.  The military branches responsible for protection of our country must counter such attacks in the most precise manner possible, while minimizing causalities.  The evolution of war began with mostly man-to-man combat, then armed vehicles, then manned aircraft, leading to the current unmanned aircraft.  The argument that drone attacks lead to more civilian deaths over previous methods of war is statement with very little supporting evidence.

 References

McKnight, Lt. Gen. C,  (2014).  The Morality of Drones.  Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lt-gen-clarence-e-mcknight-jr-/the-morality-of-drones_b_6002808.html

Peters, R.  (2015).  End the moaning about the morality of US drone strikes.  Retrieve from http://nypost.com/2015/04/23/end-the-moaning-about-the-morality-of-us-drone-strikes/

Shane, S.  (2012).  The Moral Case for Drones.  Retrieve from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/sunday-review/the-moral-case-for-drones.html?_r=0

Operational Risk Management

Commercial sUAS operations are growing quickly as FAA regulations continue to change.  Part 107 recently released by the FAA will allow for commercial operation of UAS by anyone that takes the aeronautical knowledge test to become certified as a sUAS commercial operator.  Commercial operators include anyone flying their UAS in exchange for money.  Part 107 will be official in August and will no longer require commercial UAS pilots to operate with a private pilot’s license.  This opens the door for a multitude of commercial “drone” businesses and opportunities.  However, each pilot should approach their applied application with a fully defined plan to mitigate any hazards during operation.  The subsections below will give examples of the hazard analysis process for a DJI Phantom 4 used for commercial roof inspection operation.

     

Preliminary Hazard List

     The initial list is used for brainstorming and coming up with potential hazards in various stages of the operation.  The table below shows the staging and flight hazards as an example.  The probability, severity, and Risk level are based on MIL-STD-882D/E (Marshall, Douglas M., Barnhart, Richard K., and Hottman, Stephen B., 2012).  Probability starts with level A at “Frequent” and goes to level E which is considered “Improbable”.  Severity starts with Category I which is catastrophic and ends with level IV which is negligible.  The greater the number or letter, the less of a risk the hazard will present.

       Track one shows power lines as a probable probability and a severity of category III which is marginal.  This means that power lines are somewhat possible in terms of an obstacle to consider during staging.  The severity would be marginal in that this would most likely result in a loss of work days due to damaged equipment but not necessarily bodily injury.

Preliminary Hazard Assessment

     The next step is to analyze the proposed hazards and determine potential mitigating actions.  After providing a mitigation action the RRL or residual risk level is revaluated to determine if the proposed action reduced the original risk.  All actions proposed below did reduce the risks by small increments and most are fairly straight forward for this operation application.  The pilot needs to have a full understanding of the UAS’s capabilities and limitations in all conditions and environments to help reduce potential risk (Marshall, Douglas M., Barnhart, Richard K., and Hottman, Stephen B., 2012). 

Operational Hazard Review and Analysis

     The OHR&A is similar to the previous analysis but focuses on human factors and crew resource management.  In addition the action review column is added which will include the actions that haven’t been mitigated or the newly modified action.  For the DJI P4 example all actions were mitigated appropriately so the tables below will only show new actions that require attention or review related to the human/machine interface and CRM (Marshall, Douglas M., Barnhart, Richard K., and Hottman, Stephen B., 2012). 

Operational Risk Management Assessment Tool

     The final tool is the risk assessment matrix which is used to evaluate common operational hazards in terms of severity and probability (Marshall, Douglas M., Barnhart, Richard K., and Hottman, Stephen B., 2012).  The risk assessment matrix takes the above risks that were developed and gives a summary prior to flight activity.  The tool is used as an aid in the decision-making process.

References

Marshall, Douglas M., Barnhart, Richard K., and Hottman, Stephen B., eds. (2012).   Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Baton Rouge, ProQuest ebrary. Web. 18 July 2016.

Automated Take-off and Landing

Unmanned Aircraft

     Types of automation used for various unmanned aircraft today can vary greatly.  The operator might be “in the loop” or “on the loop” depending on the systems design.  Military UAV applications continue to research and integrate greater levels of automation then in any other industry.

UAV Capabilities

     The greatest advancement in terms of unmanned automated flight pertaining to automatic takeoff and landing would be the X-47B experimental demonstrator by Northrop Grumman.  The unmanned combat air vehicle was designed to show the ability of landing on an aircraft carrier autonomously.  In addition, the aircraft also demonstrated the ability to refuel during autonomous flight.  The basic concept behind the unmanned combat aerial vehicle is the capability to be launched by the click of a button.  The unmanned carrier-launched surveillance and strike system requires superior processing power and immense amounts of data in order to make split second decisions during all flight phases. 

     The difference between the X-47B and other UAV’s with autonomous capabilities is that the X-47B does not need to be piloted by remote control.  Control of the UAV is carried out through a forearm-mounted box called the Control Display Unit (CDU) shown in figure 1, which sends orders to an on-board computer (TechBlog. 2013).   The CDU can also be used for taxiing the UAV on the aircraft carrier.  The CDU is not used to fly the UCAV but for sending commands such as targets, waypoints, path corrections, and any other information that will allow the UCAV to calculate its course and navigate utilizing the autopilot system (Rutherford, H. 2013).   GPS and collision avoidance sensors are also integrated to help with sense and avoid capabilities.   Accelerometers, altimeters, gyroscopes, and other classified hardware were also designed and integrated to provide an advanced level of autonomous flight (Dillow, C. 2012).  The system was tested through thousands of simulated flights prior to actual flight.

    Advantages of the X-47B include the ability to launch from naval carriers unlike the predator and repaper drones, which are too slow and large to allow such a takeoff.  In addition, the other drones currently used by the military are mostly landed via joystick and video feed which would be an incredible challenge to land on a carrier even for the most experienced pilot (Dillow, C. 2012).  Landing an aircraft on a carrier is a complex task, which normally requires human-to-human voice communication to verbally report out on altitude, fuel, and other pertinent information (Dillow, C. 2012).  The X-47B autonomous landing procedures have automated almost all of the previous verbal communication.  The information such as position, speed, and pitch are sent over a datalink to the tower.  Datalink failures are a possibility as well so the system was designed to fly past the carrier during approach, find an alternative landing location, or worst-case ditch in the ocean (Dillow, C. 2012).    

Figure 1 – Forearm mounted CDU controller for X-47B.  Adapted from http://www.techeblog.com/index.php/

UAV Limitations

     The tested capabilities of the UCAV meet all expectations an autonomous UAV should live up to.  However, the capabilities are limited to the specific conditions tested since the program is strictly experimental.  During flight test, similar issues of communication and maintenance were experienced as are with most remotely piloted vehicles.  The idea behind the demonstrator is to show the fully autonomous capabilities and potentially use the technology in other fighter platforms and new UAV designs.  The fact that the operator is on the loop versus in the loop can lead to challenges if the aircraft performs in a way not intended but can’t be immediately taken control of by an operator or pilot.

  Costs of programs such as this UCAV are high and have a specified timeline, which can sometime limit full development potential of a new technology or system.

Manned Aircraft

     Automated operations of manned aircraft are usually found in commercial transport through the use of autopilot on commercial airliners which give the pilot more of a supervisory role.  In terms of manned aircraft, auto-takeoff is not a technology or operating procedure normally used.  However, auto landing of an aircraft is more common, especially in poor visibility weather conditions.   

Manned Capabilities

     Aircraft such as the Boeing 737, 777, 787 and other Airbus aircraft all come standard with a variation of autoland.  More recently, autoland was demonstrated in General Aviation through the Diamond aircraft DA42 four-seat twin-engine airplane shown in Figure 2. 

 The idea behind the automatic landing feature of the Diamond aircraft is more of a general “electronic parachute” for general aviation pilots.  General Aviation accidents are more common then commercial operations.  Some aircraft have actual parachutes that can be deployed, others allow for pilots to release themselves, and some have no fail safe at all.  The fly by wire autoland system is designed as an emergency backup if a pilot experiences an engine failure or becomes incapacitated (Horne, T. 2015).   The system activates if the aircraft is near its destination and no inputs from the pilot have been detected.  Through the use of GPS navigation and radar altimeter the system utilizes autopilot and control power changes to extend the landing gear, flaps, and actually land the airplane (Horne, T. 2015). 

    The autoland feature is a true advancement in automation for general aviation safety.  Whether the pilot is not capable to land the aircraft, visibility is limited, or weather conditions are poor the autoland provides an automated solution.  The autoland can be overridden at anytime as well, allowing the pilot to take back control.  In addition to the autoland feature, Diamond is also planning to test an automatic takeoff option (Horne, T. 2015). 

Figure 2 – Diamond Aircraft – Left, Cockpit view during autoland flight - Right.  Adapted from http://www.avweb.com/avwebflash/news/Video-Diamond-DA42-Autoland-224897-1.html

Manned Limitations

     The autoland feature for the Diamond aircraft is great for specific situations but is still very limited in its applications.  The autoland doesn’t include any other autopilot features during normal flight.  Autothrottle is only applied during the engagement of the autoland feature.  Also the cost of the system is very high in comparison to the overall cost of the aircraft, making the benefit less desirable to the average general aviation pilot.

    

Conclusion

     Take-off and landing are the most critical part of any flight and the level of automation associated with this flight phase should be based on the environment.  Unmanned platforms can take greater advantage of automatic take-offs and landings especially in military applications.  Auto takeoff and landing allows the reduction in launch and recovery teams, equipment, infrastructure, and maintenance.  Automated take offs and landings would allow a reduction in cost for military applications.  Take-off and landing via a joystick and video feed is very challenging and requires a high degree of skill and situational awareness.  Full autonomous takeoff and landing of UAV’s have come a long way but still require testing for all unique flight environments, fail safe modes, electromagnetic interference, latency,  and datalink management.

     Manned aircraft with capability for automated take-offs and landings are not used as predominately and are meant as a means of assisting the crew.  During poor visibility and bad weather, autoland is a great asset.  Heavily relying on such automation is not recommended.  The crew is in command of the airplane, not the automation.  Take off and landing are critical and pilots should be in control during these phases unless other environmental circumstances are present.

     Lastly, regardless of the level of automation and how it might be used, training is crucial.  The crew must understand the automated systems capabilities, when it should be used, and the limitations.      

  

 References

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Grady, M.  (2015).  Diamond DA42 Autoland.  Retrieved from http://www.avweb.com/avwebflash/news/Video-Diamond-DA42-Autoland-224897-1.html

Horne, T.  (2015).  Diamond Debuts Autoland System.  Retrieved from https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2015/september/22/diamond-debuts-autoland-system?WT.mc_id=150925epilot=WT.mc_sect%3dtts#.VgU9Dbl3OKc.mailto

Nasr, Reem.  (2015).  Autopilot: What the system can and cant do.  Retrieved from http://www.cnbc.com/2015/03/26/autopilot-what-the-system-can-and-cant-do.html

Rutherford, H. (2013). The unmanned combat air system demonstrator X-47B. Chips, 31(2), 30.

TechBlog.  (2013).  X-47B Stealth Drone Completes Successful Launch Aircraft Carrier.  Retrieved from http://www.techeblog.com/index.php/tech-gadget/x-47b-stealth-drone-completes-successful-launch-from-aircraft-carrier